INTRODUCTION
There is growing concern about chronic
diseases such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension,
hypercholesterolemia, cancer, and cardiovascular
disease resulting from lifestyle changes worldwide [1].
According to a study by S. Shab-Bidar and A. Jayedi,
an increase in fish consumption of 100 g/day can reduce
overall and cardiovascular mortality, as well as the risk
of coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, stroke,
heart failure, depression, and liver cancer. It has no
effect on other kinds of cancer. Therefore, fish can be
considered a healthy source of animal protein [2].
Oceans cover over 70% of the earth’s surface and
provide an enormous ecosystem for a wide variety
of marine species. These species are a rich source of
bioactive compounds that can be used in medicine,
pharmacology, and food industry [3].
A number of recent foreign studies have focused
on using the by-products of processing fish, marine
invertebrates, and plants. These by-products are often
discarded as waste, although they contain such valuable
components as high-quality proteins, lipids, minerals,
vitamins, enzymes, and other bioactive compounds that
can be used to fight cancer and some cardiovascular
diseases [1, 3, 4].
Nutrition affects our general health and the state of
our individual functional systems. Therefore, it should
not only be balanced and adequate to gender, age, and
the degree of one’s physical and mental activity, but
also take into account the climatic and geographic
conditions, as well as national characteristics and habits.
It is especially relevant to the northern regions of Russia.
Fish is an essential component of human diet that
provides more than 3 billion people worldwide with about 20% of animal protein [5]. The global fish catch
is 182 million tons per annum, of which 2.6–4.5% is
produced in Russia [6]. The Far Eastern basin accounts
for 64% of the all-Russian catch. Its white fish, salmon,
shrimp, squid, and sea kale are the most popular
products among consumers. The global production
of pink salmon caviar is 173,000 tons, of which 27%
(46,700 t) is produced in Russia (30,900 t in the Sea of
Okhotsk). Russia boasts its saffron cod (40,500 t/year),
commander squid (150,000 t/year), blue-throated halibut
(400 kg/year), and kelp (3,800–9,800 t/year). Shrimp
dominates among the crustaceans, but its annual
production of 10,000–20,000 tons only satisfies 20% of
the Russian demand [6].
Fishing is the leading industry in many coastal
regions of Russia, especially in the North and the Far
East, where it is the main source of income. Primorsky
Krai produces about 50% of all fish in the Far East,
followed by Kamchatka and Sakhalin that equally
share 2/5 of the total catch. The Magadan Region is
also becoming an important player in the Russian fish
market. The Far Eastern Basin has 26 million tons of
aquatic biological resources, producing 3 million tons of
fish per year. An average Russian consumes 16.1 kg fish
per year.
Frozen, lightly salted, and smoked fish, as well as
cheap canned fish, are among the most popular products
in Russia. There is a growth in the consumption of
ultra-processed products, which is associated with the
standard of living in the country. There is a growing
demand for fish delicacies, valuable species of fish,
shrimp, crabs, and other invertebrates, as well as caviar,
among high-income population [7].
According to the federal statistics of 2000 vs. 2019,
the annual capita consumption of fish and fish products
grew from 14.3 to 21.9 kg and from 12.7 to 22.3 kg in
urban and rural areas, respectively. In 2019, the urban
citizen consumed 13.9 kg of live and frozen fish and
seafood, 4.1 kg of salted, smoked, and dried fish and
seafood, 2.1 kg of canned fish, and 1.0 kg of semifinished
and finished fish products. These indicators for
a rural consumer were 14.8 kg, 4.6 kg, 1.8 kg, and 0.6 kg,
respectively. The data for 2018 were almost identical to
those for 2019 [8].
Fish has a more diverse mineral composition than
meat, mainly due to microelements [9, 10]. While fish
and meat have similar amounts of macronutrients
(0.2% phosphorus, 0.3% potassium, 0.1% calcium),
the content of some microelements in fish is 10 times
higher (20–150 μg/g iodine, 140–700 μg% fluorine,
40–50 μg% bromine). Fish is only low in iron (1 mg%).
Other microelements in fish include cobalt (about
20 mg%; 3–4 times more than in meat), zinc (1 mg%),
copper (0.1 mg%), nickel (6 mg%), and molybdenum
(4 mg%). Its average contents of sodium (100 mg%)
and chlorine (165 mg%) are 2–3 times higher than in
meat. The total content of minerals in marine fish is
about 1.5 times as high as meat. Thus, fish and fish
products are an essential source of minerals in human
diet. We should also note that fish, especially predatory
fish, can accumulate some toxic elements – mercury
(up to 0.7 mg/kg), lead (up to 2.0 mg/kg), and cadmium
(up to 0.2 mg/kg). However, these concentrations are
within permissible levels and, when fish is consumed in
generally accepted amounts, they do not pose any health
hazard [7].
Non-fish species – crustaceans (crabs, shrimps,
lobsters, crayfish), cephalopods (squid, octopus),
bivalves (oysters, mussels, scallops), as well as algae
(kelp, or sea kale) – contain potassium, sodium,
calcium, magnesium, chlorine, sulfur, iron, manganese,
phosphorus, aluminum, zinc, and many other macroand
microelements [11]. There is scientific evidence
that fish species from tropical areas contain high
concentrations of calcium, iron, and zinc, while those
from cold seas or pelagic seas and oceans are rich in
omega-3 fatty acids [12].
Earlier, we determined the contents of macroand
microelements in muscle tissue and testes of
anadromous fish of the salmon (Salmoidae L.),
chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta L.), coho salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutch L.), and pink salmon
(Oncorhynchus gorbuscha L.) caught in the coastal Sea
of Okhotsk, Magadan Region. These species are most
frequently eaten by the local population [13]. We found
that the interspecific differences in the levels of elements
in their biosubstrates were within the permissible
standards for food products. However, chum salmon
had larger amounts of arsenic, cobalt, copper, sodium,
tin, antimony, and zinc than coho salmon. The level
of iron in chum salmon and coho salmon was similar
to that in freshwater fish. The contents of potassium
and phosphorus were quite high, while the contents
of lead, mercury, antimony, cadmium, arsenic, and
cobalt were significantly below the standards. We also
found that the element system of the indigenous smallnumbered
peoples, who have a traditional way of life
in the Magadan Region, was in a better state than the
element system of the Caucasian group, despite the
imbalance in chemical elements seen in all the groups.
This was probably due to the genetic adaptation of the
northerners’ mineral metabolism to the chronically
insufficient intake of macro- and microelements, as well
as their diet.
In this work, we determined the contents of
chemical elements in the muscle tissue of some species
of fish and seafood, as well as in algae, native to the
Sea of Okhotsk. These products are the most essential
components in the diet of the indigenous northern
peoples and general inhabitants of the coastal northern
regions. The population of the Magadan Region has
a «northern» profile of macro- and microelements
with a deficiency of calcium, cobalt, magnesium, zinc,
selenium, and iodine [13]. Therefore, we aimed to
analyze (qualitatively and quantitatively) the mineral
composition of some species of marine life in order to
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determine whether the consumption of marine fish and
seafood can satisfy the recommended daily requirement
for minerals.
STUDY OBJECTS AND METHODS
The objects of research were: Far Eastern or Pacific
saffron cod (Eleginus gracilis, n = 1 0), b lack o r b lueheaded
halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides, n = 10),
commander squid (Berryteuthis magister, n = 10),
cooked and frozen northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis,
n = 10), salted pink salmon caviar (Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha, n = 10), and kelp (Laminaria, n = 10) or sea
kale. All the objects were caught in the Sea of Okhotsk,
the Magadan Region. Each sample of 50 g was packed in
a polypropylene container. The contents of macro- and
microelements were determined threefold and averaged.
Our study methods included the inductively coupled
plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) and
the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS) applied with Optima 2000 DV and Agilent
8900 ICP-MS instruments (Perkin Elmer, USA).
The study was carried out in line with Guidelines
No. 4.1.985-00 “Determination of toxic elements in
food products and raw materials. The autoclave sample
preparation technique” and in cooperation with the
Micronutrients Company (Moscow).
The study objects were analyzed for the following
macro- and microelements: aluminum (Al), arsenic (As),
boron (B), calcium (Ca), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co),
chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), mercury (Hg),
iodine (I), potassium (K), lithium (Li), magnesium (Mg),
manganese (Mn), sodium (Na), nickel (Ni), phosphorus
(P), lead (Pb), selenium (Se), silicon (Si), tin (Sn),
antimony (Sr), vanadium ( V), and zinc (Zn).
For statistical analysis, we calculated the average
measurement error (M ± m) and tested the normality of
frequency distribution. When testing null hypotheses,
the critical level of statistical significance was P < 0.05.
Raw product portions of 100 g were used to determine
the degree to which the fish and seafood species
satisfied the daily adult requirement for macro- and
microelements. For this, we referred to the “Standard
physiological requirements for energy and nutrients for
various population groups in the Russian Federation”
(Methodological Guidelines 2.3.1.2432-08).
The macro- and microelement status of the workingage
population in Magadan was examined in compliance
with the Declaration of Helsinki and the principles
of biomedical ethics. Each participant (study subject)
voluntarily provided a written informed consent in line
with Federal Law No. 323 “On Health Protection in the
Russian Federation” of November 21, 2011 and Federal
Law No. 152 “On personal data” of July 27, 2006.
We examined a total of 111 men (70 men aged
22–35 and 41 men aged 36–60) and 270 women
(120 women aged 21–35 and 150 women aged 36–55).
Hair samples from the back of the head were used as
biomaterial for elemental analysis. They were exposed
to inductively coupled argon plasma mass spectrometry
on an Agilent 8900 ICP-MS instrument in the same
laboratory to determine the contents of 25 macroand
microelements: Al (aluminum), As (arsenic),
B (boron), Be (beryllium), Ca (calcium), Cd (cadmium),
Co (cobalt), Cr (chromium), Cu (copper), Fe (iron),
Hg (mercury), I (iodine), K (potassium), Li (lithium),
Mg (magnesium), Mn (manganese), Na (sodium),
Ni (nickel), P (phosphorus), Pb (lead), Se (selenium),
Si (silicon), Sn (tin), V (vanadium), and Zn (zinc).
The data were statistically processed with IBM SPSS
Statistics 21.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows the average concentrations of essential
(vital) macro- and microelements determined in the
aquatic organisms and algae sampled from the Sea of
Okhotsk.
We found that macronutrients differed significantly
across almost all the studied species. Yet, kelp had
a significantly higher (P < 0.05) content of calcium,
potassium, and magnesium, accounting for 18, 50,
and 37% of the daily requirement, respectively. Our
calculations were based on 100 g portions of fresh (raw)
products, since mineral loss during cooking was outside
our study objectives. According to literature, however,
the loss of minerals in cooked products is less than
10% [9]. Salted pink salmon caviar showed the highest
(P = 0.01) concentrations of sodium and phosphorus of
10040 and 4763 μg/g, respectively, amounting to 77 and
60% of the daily intake.
Our macroelement values slightly differed from the
Handbook on the Chemical Composition and Caloric
Content of Russian Foodstuffs published by the Institute
of Nutrition, the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences
(hereinafter “Handbook”) [9]. Below are the values from
the Handbook (with our values in brackets) for 100 g
portions of the following species:
– saffron cod: sodium – 70 mg% (114.4 mg%),
potassium – 335 mg% (302.7 mg%), calcium –
40 mg% (22.4 mg%), magnesium – 40 mg%
(21.5 mg%), phosphorus – 240 mg% (200.6 mg%);
– halibut: sodium – 55 mg% (140.5 mg%), potassium –
450 mg% (188.6 mg%), calcium – 30 mg% (11.4 mg%),
magnesium – 60 mg% (18.5 mg%), phosphorus –
220 mg% (131.1 mg%);
– pink salmon caviar: sodium – 2245 mg% (1004 mg%),
potassium – 85 mg% (130.8 mg%), calcium – 75 mg%
(60.9 mg%), magnesium – 141 mg% (69.6% mg%),
phosphorus – 426 mg% (476.3 mg%);
– boiled and frozen shrimp: sodium – 540 mg%
(494.3 mg%), potassium – 220 mg% (143.4 mg%),
calcium – 70 mg% (89.6 mg%), magnesium – 50 mg%
(63.4 mg%), phosphorus – 225 mg% (128.2 mg%); and
– squid: sodium – 110 mg% (468.4 mg%), potassium –
280 mg% (160.5 mg%), calcium – 40 mg% (23.2 mg%),
magnesium – 90 mg% (97.9 mg%), phosphorus –
250 mg% (201.4 mg%).
The differences might be associated with the
particular species [14] (in some cases, the Handbook
only gives the generic name without specifying the
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Table 1 Essential macro- and microelements (M ± m) in the muscle tissue of some species of marine life (the Sea of Okhotsk, Magadan)
ME Pacific saffron
cod Eleginus
gracilis
Black-headed
halibut
Reinhardtius
hippoglossoides
Commander
squid
Berryteuthis
magister
Northern
shrimp
Pandalus
borealis
Pink salmon
caviar
Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha
Kelp
Laminaria
Daily
requirement
% of daily adult requirement (in 100 g)
Macroelements
Ca 224 ± 22
1-2, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
114 ± 11
2-3,2-4, 2-5, 2-6
232 ± 23
3-4, 3-5, 3-6
896 ± 90
4-5, 4-6
609 ± 61
5-6
2210 ± 221 1250 mg 1.8 0.9 1.9 7.2 4.9 17.7
K 3027 ± 303
1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
1886 ± 189
2-4, 2-5, 2-6
1605 ± 161
3-6
1434 ± 143
4-6
1308 ± 131
5-6
12508 ± 1251 2500 mg 12.1 7.5 6.4 5.7 5.2 50.0
Mg 215 ± 22
1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
185 ± 18
2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6
979 ± 98
3-4, 3-5, 3-6
634 ± 63
4-6
696 ± 70
5-6
1482 ± 148 400 mg 5.4 4.6 24.5 15.9 17.4 37.1
Na 1144 ± 114
1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
1405 ± 140
2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6
4684 ± 468
3-5, 3-6
4943 ± 494
4-5, 4-6
10040 ± 1004
5-6
7982 ± 798 1300 mg 8.8 10.8 36 38 77.2 61.4
P 2006 ± 201
1-2, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
1311 ± 131
2-3, 2-5, 2-6
2014 ± 201
3-4, 3-5, 3-6
1282 ± 128
4-5, 4-6
4763 ± 476
5-6
547 ± 55 800 mg 25.1 16.4 25.2 16.0 59.5 6.8
Microelements
Cu 0.392 ± 0.047
1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
0.181 ± 0.022
2-3, 2-4, 2-5
2.52 ± 0.25
3-4, 3-6
8.26 ± 0.83
4-5, 4-6
2.99 ± 0.30
5-6
0.190 ± 0.023 1.0 mg 3.9 2.0 25.2 83.0 29.9 1.9
Fe 3.42 ± 0.34
1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
0.981 ± 0.118
2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6
6.01 ± 0.60
3-4, 3-5, 3-6
1.72 ± 0.17
4-5, 4-6
21.46 ± 2.15
5-6
80.72 ± 8.07 Male – 10 mg 3.4 1.0 6.0 1.7 21.5 80.72
Female –15 mg 2.3 0.7 4.0 1.1 14.3 53.8
I 6.0 ± 0.6
1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
0.841 ± 0.101
2-3, 2-5, 2-6
0.385 ± 0.046
3-4, 3-5, 3-6
0.773 ± 0.093
4-5, 4-6
7.81 ± 0.78
5-6
2319 ± 278 150 mcg >100% 56.1 25.7 51.5 >100% >100%
Mn 0.122 ± 0.015
1-2, 1-3, 1-4,1-5, 1-6
0.042 ± 0.006
2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6
0.553 ± 0.066
3-4, 3-5, 3-6
0.186 ± 0.022
4-5, 4-6
1.07 ± 0.11
5-6
0.960 ± 0.115 2.0 mg 0.6 0.2 2.8 0.9 5.4 4.8
Se 0.509 ± 0.061
1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
0.338 ± 0.041
2-5, 2-6
0.327 ± 0.039
3-5, 3-6
0.265 ± 0.032
4-5, 4-6
2.12 ± 0.21 0.020 ± 0.004 70 mcg 72.9 48.3 46.7 37.9 >100% 2.9
Zn 10.64 ± 1.06
1-2, 1-5, 1-6
3.58 ± 0.36
2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6
10.65 ± 1.06
3-5, 3-6
12.27 ± 1.23
4-5, 4-6
23.40 ± 2.34
5-6
2.78 ± 0.28 12 mg 8.9 3.0 8.9 10.2 19.5 2.3
ME – macro- and microelements; daily requirements were taken from the “Standard physiological requirements for energy and nutrients for various population groups in the Russian Federation” (Methodological
Guidelines 2.3.1.2432-08); 1-2 – reliably significant differences in the amounts of macro- and microelements (P < 0.05) among the samples.
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Table 2 Conditionally essential microelements (M ± m) in the biosubstrates of some species of marine life (the Sea of Okhotsk,
Magadan)
ME Pacific saffron
cod Eleginus
gracilis
Blue-headed
halibut
Reinhardtius
hippoglossoides
Commander squid
Berryteuthis
magister
Northern
shrimp
Pandalus
borealis
Pink salmon
caviar
Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha
Kelp
Laminaria
Daily
requirement
B 0.119 ± 0.014
1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
0.314 ± 0.038
2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6
1.83 ± 0.18
3-5,3-6
1.82 ± 0.18
4-5, 4-6
<0.021
5-6
21.15 ± 2.12 2.0 mg
Co 0.0062 ± 0.00124
1-2, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
0.0019 ± 0.00039
2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6
0.0063 ± 0.00126
3-4, 3-5, 3-6
0.011 ± 0.002
4-6
0.015 ± 0.002 0.020 ± 0.003 10 mcg
Cr 0.103 ± 0.012
1-2
0.156 ± 0.019
2-4, 2-6
0.128 ± 0.015
3-4
0.08 ± 0.012
4-5
0.117 ± 0.014 0.10 ± 0.012 50 mcg
V 0.0073 ± 0.00146
1-2, 1-3, 1-6
0.0015 ± 0.00031
2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6
0.0033 ± 0.00066
3-4, 3-5, 3-6
0.010 ± 0.002
4-5, 4-6
0.0058 ± 0.00117 0.38 ± 0.046 15 mcg
Si 20.25 ± 2.03
1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-6
12.55 ± 1.25
2-3, 2-4, 2-5
27.42 ± 2.74
3-5, 3-6
33.33 ± 3.33
4-5, 4-6
20.83 ± 2.08
5-6
12.66 ± 1.27 5.0 mg
Li 0.012 ± 0.002
1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6
0.023 ± 0.004
2-3, 2-4,2-5,2-6
0.080 ± 0.012
3-5, 3-6
0.079 ± 0.012
4-5, 4-6
0.0051 ± 0.00102
5-6
0.130 ± 0.015 100 mcg
Ni 0.054 ± 0.008
1-6
0.048 ± 0.007
2-4, 2-5, 2-6
0.044 ± 0.007
3-4, 3-5, 3-6
0.074 ± 0.011 0.062 ± 0.009 0.080 ± 0.012 n.a.
Note: ME – macro- and microelements; 1-2 – reliably significant differences in the amounts of macro- and microelements (P < 0.05) among the
samples; n.a. – not available
Table 3 Toxic microelements (M ± m) in the biosubstrates of some species of marine life (the Sea of Okhotsk, Magadan)
ME Pacific saffron cod
Eleginus gracilis
Blue-headed halibut
Reinhardtius
hippoglossoides
Commander squid
Berryteuthis
magister
Northern shrimp
Pandalus borealis
Pink salmon caviar
Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha
Kelp Laminaria TPL mg/kg,
max.I
1,2 3–5 6
Al 1.20 ± 0.12 0.864 ± 0.104 1.0 ± 0.1 0.867 ± 0.104 0.42 ± 0.05 1.82 ± 1.18 –
As 27.19 ± 2.72 2.07 ± 0.21 0.849 ± 0.102 4.71 ± 0.47 0.294 ± 0.035 6.89 ± 0.69 5.0 5.0 5.0
Cd 0.0024 ± 0.00048 0.0008 ± 0.00023 0.069 ± 0.010 0.075 ± 0.011 0.0016 ± 0.00033 0.130 ± 0.016 0.2 2.0 1.0
Hg 0.034 ± 0.005 0.039 ± 0.006 0.027 ± 0.004 0.028 ± 0.004 <0.0036 0.05 ± 0.008 0.5 0.2 0.1
Pb 0.0043 ± 0.00087 0.0045 ± 0.0009 0.0042 ± 0.00084 0.0031 ± 0.00061 0.0025 ± 0.00051 0.04 ± 0.006 1.0 10.0 0.5
Sn 0.038 ± 0.006 0.004 ± 0.0008 0.0049 ± 0.00097 0.0052 ± 0.00104 0.0092 ± 0.00185 0.008 ± 0.0017 –
Sr 0.817 ± 0.098 0.636 ± 0.076 4.37 ± 0.44 20.68 ± 2.07 5.42 ± 0.54 193 ± 19 –
Note: ME – macro- and microelements; TPL – temporarily permissible level
I “Unified sanitary, epidemiological and hygienic requirements for products (goods) subject to sanitary and epidemiological surveillance (control)”
(effective from June 1, 2019).
species). Additional factors include their habitat,
production season, and the methods used to determine
macro- and microelements.
The significantly highest content of copper was
recorded in the boiled and frozen shrimp sample (83%
of the daily requirement). The maximum contents of iron
and iodine were found in the kelp sample (54–81% and
over 100%, respectively). The highest concentrations of
manganese, selenium, and zinc were determined in pink
salmon caviar (5%, over 100%, and 19.5%, respectively).
Of all aquatic products, pink salmon caviar was
analyzed in a ready-to-eat salted form, since raw caviar
is not stored or frozen. Its sodium content was extremely
high (10040 μg/g vs. the recommended intake of
1300 mg/day), as can be seen in Table 1. However, even
if a daily diet includes other sodium-containing foods,
one caviar sandwich a day will not pose any health risk.
On the contrary, it will benefit health since caviar is rich
in phosphorus, iron, iodine, zinc, and valuable bioactive
substances, such as omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids
and vitamins.
The contents of conditionally essential elements are
presented in Table 2.
The highest boron content was recorded in the kelp
sample (21.15 μg/g or 106% of the daily requirement
in 100 g). This trace element plays a significant role in
the formation of bone tissue by regulating the activity
of parathyroid hormone and, therefore, the metabolism
of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus [15, 16]. This
makes kelp an essential component in the northerners’
diet. Also, kelp had higher concentrations of cobalt
(2 μg or 20% of the daily requirement), vanadium (38 μg
or 95%), and lithium (13 μg or 13%) than any other of the
studied samples. The maximum amount of chromium
was determined in the muscle tissue of blue halibut
(15.5 μg or 31% of the daily requirement). Northern
shrimp was rich in silicon (3,333 mcg or 67% of the
daily requirement).
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We analyzed the concentrations of toxic
microelements in the studied biosubstrates against
the “Unified sanitary, epidemiological and hygienic
requirements for products (goods) subject to sanitary
and epidemiological surveillance (control)” (effective
from June 1, 2019) and the hygienic safety requirements
for food products established in the Technical
Regulations of the Customs Union “On food safety”
(TR CU 021/2011). Excessive levels were only found for
arsenic: 5.4 times as high in the Pacific saffron cod and
1.4 times as high in the kelp sample (Table 3).
Some studies report fluctuations in the content of
total arsenic in various species of fish and shellfish
from 5 to 200 μg/g (or mg/kg) [17, 18]. The Russian
regulations specify certain contents of total arsenic
in food products and materials without differentiating
between its inorganic (toxic) and organic (low-toxic)
forms, which explains excess concentrations determined
in marine hydrobionts. Yet, we know that arsenic is
mainly present in the tissues of marine life in its organic,
low-toxic forms, such as arsenobetaine, arsenocholine,
and arsenosugar [19]. This problem could be solved
by introducing an additional maximum permissible
concentration for inorganic arsenic in marine
hydrobionts into the regulatory documents, such as the
Technical Regulations of the Customs Union “On food
safety” (TR CU 021/2011) [19].
Besides, our long-term studies of the elemental
status did not find any excessive contents of heavy and
toxic metals (including arsenic) in the population of the
Magadan Region [13, 20].
Thus, since the regulatory documents establish
maximum permissible concentrations of total, rather
than organic, arsenic in marine life, we can conclude
that the population of the Magadan Region is not
exposed to a toxic load of arsenic.
Rational nutrition involves a variety of foods in the
diet, including those produced in other biogeochemical
regions that may have a negative impact on the local
population. Thus, the consumption of local food
with a significant proportion of essential macro- and
microelements is an effective way to prevent regional
deficiency or excess of certain chemicals.
According to our data, over 50% of the workingage
residents of Magadan have a deficiency of calcium
and magnesium (most essential macroelements), as well
as cobalt and iodine (microelements). This deficiency,
which is typical of the “northern” elemental profile, can
decrease the northerners’ adaptive reserves. Moreover,
a chronic deficiency of basic vital elements in extreme
northern conditions can cause dysfunctions in many
physiological systems and a wide range of pathologies.
The statistical data for the mineral metabolism in the
study subjects are presented in Table 4.
The studied cohorts showed obvious differences
related to both age and gender. In a linear
approximation, reliably significant (at P < 0.05)
Table 4 Macro- and microelements in the hair samples of working-age residents of Magadan (25–75 percentile)
ME Male study subjects Female study subjects Significance level (p)
Aged 22–35 (n = 70) Aged 36–60 (n = 41) Aged 21–35 (n = 120) Aged 36–55 (n = 150) 1–2 3–4 1–3 2–4
Al 10.00 (6.59–14.62) 11.69 (5.82–20.73) 7.62 (4.39–13.73) 7.85 (4.69–14.15) 0.50 0.52 0.02 0.04
As 0.081 (0.046–0.117) 0.079 (0.046–0.185) 0.042 (0.042–0.062) 0.042 (0.027–0.072) 0.73 0.73 0.00 0.00
Ca 265.42 (187.85–333.54) 310.60 (221.17–405.60) 449.47 (258.10–750.45) 473.00 (282.48–937.98) 0.07 0.17 0.00 0.00
Cd 0.027 (0.013–0.052) 0.040 (0.013–0.122) 0.008 (0.004–0.016) 0.012 (0.006–0.034) 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00
Co 0.010 (0.006–0.018) 0.014 (0.008–0.074) 0.012 (0.007–0.022) 0.014 (0.008–0.033) 0.01 0.11 0.10 0.41
Cr 0.73 (0.47–1.01) 0.56 (0.24–1.03) 0.35 (0.23–0.54) 0.36 (0.18–0.58) 0.10 0.88 0.00 0.00
Cu 10.98 (9.87–12.28) 9.89 (8.57–12.54) 10.02 (8.41–11.61) 10.23 (8.99–11.56) 0.31 0.35 0.10 0.66
Fe 18.22 (9.87–12.28) 22.42 (14.52–38.68) 20.35 (14.38–31.04) 18.39 (13.08–26.17) 0.19 0.07 0.37 0.06
K 110.40 (44.76–170.75) 171.00 (73.92–515.07) 38.59 (17.27–77.09) 74.64 (32.62–200.12) 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
Li 0.015 (0.012–0.027) 0.016 (0.010–0.036) 0.012 (0.012–0.017) 0.012 (0.011–0.022) 0.90 0.16 0.00 0.38
Mg 26.85 (19.76–35.93) 27.01 (19.18–40.17) 33.75 (21.61–67.33) 49.41 (26.75–104.32) 0.69 0.01 0.00 0.00
Mn 0.43 (0.28–0.69) 0.71 (0.42–0.95) 0.87 (0.43–1.67) 1.18 (0.48–2.31) 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01
Na 198.51 (62.81–413.94) 392.00 (189.99–866.15) 82.05 (40.52–180.23) 170.20 (79.57–575.95) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ni 0.22 (0.15–0.35) 0.29 (0.17–0.48) 0.18 (0.11–0.31) 0.17 (0.11–0.30) 0.24 0.94 0.07 0.02
P 159.72 (143.80–173.99) 163.00 (149.50–186.12) 151.38 (137.55–165.90) 156.56 (140.38–180.53) 0.19 0.07 0.08 0.170
Pb 0.48 (0.31–0.85) 1.12 (0.48–4.68) 0.16 (0.08–0.33) 0.25 (0.11–0.53) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Se 0.38 (0.30–0.51) 0.51 (0.38–0.80) 0.34 (0.26–0.49) 0.46 (0.27–0.74) 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.30
Si 32.98 (20.59–48.22) 21.33 (13.83–31.30) 28.81 (17.46–49.81) 23.92 (15.28–40.71) 0.00 0.05 0.58 0.30
Sn 0.09 (0.06–0.18) 0.12 (0.07–0.20) 0.08 (0.04–0.20) 0.08 (0.04–0.17) 0.21 0.59 0.47 0.04
V 0.12 (0.04–0.19) 0.04 (0.01–0.09) 0.04 (0.02–0.08) 0.05 (0.02–0.09) 0.01 0.73 0.00 0.74
Zn 190.80 (166.86–217.14) 177.00 (131.79–208.30) 176.75 (154.51–211.83) 174.42 (147.13–200.36) 0.02 0.17 0.08 0.68
I 0.67 (0.32–1.11) 0.74 (0.38–3.46) 0.49 (0.30–1.00) 0.55 (0.30–1.47) 0.34 0.89 0.37 0.14
Hg 0.53 (0.20–0.89) 0.60 (0.37–0.99) 0.48 (0.30–0.67) 0.51 (0.35–0.68) 0.27 0.28 0.07 0.14
B 0.81 (0.58–1.64) 0.89 (0.56–3.72) 0.56 (0.33–1.29) 0.76 (0.29–1.81) 0.29 0.33 0.20 0.12
Be 0.003 (0.003–0.004) 0.003 (0.001–0.009) 0.003 (0.001–0.003) 0.003 (0.001–0.006) 0.27 0.14 0.27 0.70
Note: ME – macro- and microelements; significant differences are highlighted in bold (p < 0.05).
308
Stepanova E.M. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2021, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 302–309
differences can be schematically represented as follows
(common groups of elements are highlighted in bold).
Gender-related differences:
men (Si, V, Zn) ♂ 22-35 > < ♂ 36-60 (Cd, Co, K, Mn,
Na, Pb, Se);
women (Si) ♀21-35 > < ♀ 36-55 (Cd, K, Mg, Mn, Na,
Pb, Se).
Age-related differences:
younger age (Al, As, Cd, Cr, K, Li, Na, Pb, V) ♂ 22-35
> < ♀21-35 (Ca, Mg, Mn);
older age (Al, As, Cd, Cr, K, Na, Ni, Pb, Sn) ♂ 36-60 >
< ♀36-55 (Ca, Mg, Mn).
Noteworthily, age-related differences in mineral
metabolism were common for men and women. Younger
subjects of both sexes had a significantly higher
median of Si concentration. The hair samples of older
subjects contained significantly higher contents of toxic
cadmium and lead, while no excess of these elements
was detected in any of the studied cohorts. In addition,
older subjects had higher concentrations of essential
potassium, manganese, sodium, and selenium. Thus,
we can consider these elements age-related. At the same
time, they tended to be in excess at different degrees
and frequency of detection, which can be considered as
mineral pre-deficiency caused by its increased excretion
from the body.
Hormone-determined gender differences in
metabolism can be seen in the elemental status of men
and women. The female subjects of both age groups
had significantly higher concentrations of essential
calcium, magnesium, and manganese, while their male
counterparts had higher contents of aluminum, arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, potassium, sodium, and lead. Our
data were in line with some literature sources and our
earlier studies [13 , 20-22].
Thus, every individual has unique mineral
metabolism that differs between men and women and
changes with age. We find it extremely important to
regularly monitor the elemental status of the workingage
population in the North as a socially significant
group. This measure will ease the growing pressure on
functional reserves, maintain the immune system, and
prevent various pathologies related to mineral imbalance
and severe deficiencies. People should support their
health, individually or under medical supervision, by
rationalizing their nutrition and consuming preventative
supplements of macro- and microelements, taking into
account the specific features of the “northern” mineral
metabolism.
The most common “northern” diseases of a
biogeochemical nature include iron deficiency states
(deficiency of iron, cobalt, magnesium, and calcium),
immunodeficiency conditions (deficiency of selenium,
zinc, iodine, and calcium), arthrosis (deficiency or excess
of calcium and silicon), urolithiasis (excess calcium
or silicon), hypertension (deficiency of magnesium
or calcium), dental diseases (imbalance of calcium,
fluoride, and magnesium), and thyroid pathologies,
most commonly endemic goiter (iodine deficiency and
imbalance of selenium, copper, manganese, cobalt,
calcium, magnesium, and other elements).
CONCLUSION
We determined the absolute contents of macroand
microelements in some species of marine life and
assessed the degree to which they could satisfy the
recommended daily requirement for these minerals
if included in the daily diet. We compared mineral
quantities in the studied species of marine fish, pink
salmon caviar, shellfish, and algae from the Sea of
Okhotsk. In addition, we examined the elemental status
of the coastal residents and specified deficiencies of
essential chemical elements common for this “northern”
profile.
We found that the studied species of marine life
native to the Sea of Okhotsk in the Magadan Region are
a valuable source of macro- and microelements that, in
some cases, satisfy over 100% of the daily requirement
for adult humans. However, the amounts of calcium and
manganese in the studied fish and non-fish products (100
g) were lower than required. Therefore, we recommend
replenishing their deficiencies with other foods that
are rich in these minerals (dairy products and meat), as
well as bioactive supplements or pharmaceuticals under
medical supervision.
Since the indigenous small-numbered northerners,
who lead a traditional way of life, have minimum
elemental imbalance and no clinical signs of endemic
goiter, we recommend that “outsiders” coming to live in
the area optimize their daily nutrition with local foods,
mainly marine fish and non-fish products.
CONTRIBUTION
The authors were equally involved in writing the
manuscript and are equally responsible for plagiarism.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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